What role has tribalism played in influencing Kenya’s development as a country? Tribalism is one of the largest influences in Kenya; it is a unique force in Africa as people often feel stronger ties to their ethnic group than to their nation as a whole. Understanding tribalism leads to understanding the people who inhabit Kenya, especially their lives and interactions. Tribalism is also one of the main contributing factors to ethnic violence, so to understand ethnic violence one must understand tribalism. Learning about tribalism enables understanding of the influence it plays in culture, politics, and ethnic strife in Africa as a whole.
Merriam-Webster defines tribalism as “tribal consciousness and loyalty; especially : exaltation of the tribe above other groups.” This means people are tied to their tribe above all else. Tribes are unique cultural groups which have their own languages, customs, and traditions completely separate to those around them.
These strong ties to cultural heritage were acceptable before Europeans arrived. People lived on their ancestral lands and continued a traditional life; however once the colonial era began this changed. “It was not until the colonial era began in earnest, a century ago [1888], that tribes were brought together in plantation labor, in city life, and in a state where all were suddenly recognized as Sudanese or Nigerians or Cameroonians” ( qtd in Kavulla). The change for Africans was rapid, and there was no chance to adjust to the new style of life: suddenly they were thrown into close proximity with other tribes who had completely dissimilar cultures. After centuries of a traditional tribal existence suddenly people were members of nations.
Then the process of condensing Africans into modern cities began. These cities were created by European imperialists to control their interests. With this process, underway Africans had no chance to assimilate so they stuck to their tribal heritage and continued with traditions, but now they were surrounded by other tribal groups in close proximity. This problem was compounded when the imperialist powers began to stake their claims across the continent.
Africa was divvied up by the colonial powers at the Berlin Conference of 1884 with complete disregard for tribal lands. Ridiculous borders were imposed all across Africa, completely negating the complex relations of the innumerable tribes on the continent. Borders cut across homogenous ethnic groups dividing the tribes into two separate countries, also encasing quarreling tribes or past enemies into the same unitary state (“Carving Up Africa” 12). This complete disregard for the influence of tribalism while creating borders which still exist today has directly led to more bloodshed than will ever be known.
Today the influence of the past is still felt in Kenya where people still are divided by the influence of tribalism creating a plethora of political and cultural issues which has led to a long history of ethnic strife. The population of Kenya broken up by ethnicity is Kikuyu 22%, Luhya 14%, Luo 13%, Kalenjin 12%, Kamba 11%, Kisii 6%, Meru 6%, other African 15%, non-African (Asian, European, and Arab) 1% (CIA World Fact Book). The general attitude of people in Kenya towards other tribes is that of bigotry and racism. Oluoch exemplifies this in It Happened on the Way to War by stating general stereotypes and practices of each group. For instance The Kikuyu only care about money and can’t be trusted, Nubians are lazy for they maintain their existence through renting the land in Kibera to others, and the Luo his own cultural group are smart and stuborn (Barcott 50).
Another example Barcott gives which supports this is the story of how Salim was treated at his grandmother’s funeral for being Muslim. Despite the fact he was born Kikuyu his family members tried to bar him from wearing a white patch and spreading soil on her grave both traditions reserved for family members (Barcott 159). This general acceptance of bigotry in society shows how even in more modern African countries, like Kenya, people are completely segregated due to the influence of tribalism. Even in cities like Nairobi people prefer to interact exclusively with their tribal members Travis Kavulla talks about how his taxi driver a Kikuyu will do small interactions with a member of another tribe, but he would never socialize, do a major trade, employ, or let one of his kin marry one (Kavulla). Despite over fifty years of independence from Brittan tribalism still divides Kenya as a whole people are still segregated by tribal lines in society. There is no sense of nationalism or unity: the only thing members of a tribe are concerned about is their tribe’s interests. This leads to large divides and the misrepresentation of the majority of Kenyans politically which often leads to ethnic clashes (Kavulla).
Since the implementation of democracy in Kenya with the election of Jomo Kenyatta (a Kikuyu) tribalism has been engrained in politics. Originally the Kenyan constitution stated that the central government would be a bicameral multi-party institution with regional governments called majimbos. However this was not long lived. In a grab for more power Kenyatta halted the flow of financial resources from the central government to the majimbos which led to the dissolution of regional governance and the creation of an all-powerful centralized imperial presidency with an absolute leader. Kenyatta continued political oppression. The limitation of democratic rights continued with the removal of political parties from the constitution making Kenyatta’s party the KANU the sole power holders (Kimundi 86-87).
In 1990 there were moves towards further democratization. Two former cabinet ministers Kenneth Matiba and Charles Rubia (both Kikuyu) called for dissolution of parliament, a referendum on the country’s future, and a public rally at the Kamukunji grounds on July 7th, 1990. They were arrested three days before the rally, but the people weren’t deterred:
“The ruling KANU elite mobilized youth wingers to reinforce the riot police in dispersing a defiant crowd that attempted to gather at the Kamukunji grounds. More than twenty people were killed and 1,000 arrested. Next, hundreds were killed injured in riots that rocked Nairobi and spread to Kikuyu inhabited towns. These events led to the beginning of politically sponsored violence in Kenya, a violence drawn along ethnic/tribal lines (Kimundi 89).”
These events were not in vain though as the protests brought the situation in Kenya to the attention of the international community. In December 1991 Kenya returned to a multiparty democracy. The parties that were formed after this were not democratic in nature: instead of being formed on a platform of ideals they followed the same tribal lines as the government they were so opposed to.
President Daniel arap Moi responded to the democratization attempts by “pursuing a policy of state ‘informiliation’ characterized by looting Kenyan public funds, and by transforming some of Kenya’s gangs into ethnic militias as a means to hold onto power” (Kimundi 90). This, along with a long economic downturn, led to a period of gang violence and ethnic cleansing lasting from 1991-1998. In 1997 Daniel arap Moi and KANU won the election continuing his 24 years of despotic rule. Moi attempted to create a KANU refuge in his homeland The Rift Valley by routing out opposing ethnic groups notably the Kikuyu. The KANU militias that attacked the Rift Valley were directly responsible for the deaths of 1,500 and the displacement of 300,000 people marking the beginning of state-sponsored vigilante terror (Kimundi 90). The KANU then changed its policy of open violence to informal repression so as to not lose donors and ease international pressure. However the gang violence still continued in the background.
In the period leading up to the 2002 election a new coalition was formed The National Rainbow Coalition headed by Mwai Kibaki and Raila Odinga. The party was formed around the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) which stated that if elected Kibaki would hold the presidency while Odinga would have the strong position of prime minister (Kimundi 92). The MoU promised to deliver a new constitution within 100 days, run a corrupt free government, provide free education for children, respect civil liberties, maintain the laws of the constitution, guarantee every Kenyan security, and hold past perpetrators of injustice liable for their actions (Kimundi 92). In December 2002 40 years of KANU rule was ended the NARC won 60 percent of the vote Moi was ousted after 24 years and Kibaki was elected president (Kimundi 92).
Once Kibaki was, elected the only provisions of the MoU which were fulfilled were education and a free press environment. There was an attempt at amending the constitution but this failed when the Kenyan people voted it down (Kimundi 93). Without the creation of a prime minister and presidential position which shared powers, Odinga left and formed his own party, the ODM. During the five years when Kibaki reigned; little changed social tensions increased, along with political polarization, while democratic reversals continued, and tribalism dominated appointment in the public sector (Kimundi 93).
Finally the election of 2007 came around, and tensions were high. People were quite concerned with the outcome and possible backlash of ethnic violence. The two major parties were Kibaki with the PNU and Raila Odinga with the ODM. During the election of December 27, 2007 it was said that the tallying process was so flawed that it was impossible to tell who won the election (Kimundi 95). Despite this Kibaki had a justice swear him in as new president, and the people did not respond well.
As a result of this election, violence swept across Kenya a reported 1,220 people were killed, 900 acts of rape were reported, 3,561 injuries, and 350,000 people were displaced (Kimundi 95). There were reports of people being targeted for distinctive ethnic features and political affiliation. “Typically perpetrators attacked, killed, and displaced members of other ethnicities” ( qtd. In Kimundi 97). Checkpoints were setup in communities where people of other ethnicities were selected then hacked to death. Rape victims were told the reason they were being targeted was because of their political affiliation or ethnic ties. People in positions of power seem to be responsible for organizing the violence toward specific ethnic groups. Both political parties allegedly recruited gangs of youth and released them at strategic points to kill and destroy property belonging to communities aligned with rival parties (Kimundi 98).
This period of violence above all else exemplifies the role tribalism plays in inciting ethnic violence. Perhaps one of the most disappointing things after looking at the violence is that very few politicians were ever convicted of the crimes which they were linked to and violence they incited.
From this violence came progress: a new constitution was finally pushed through on August 4th, 2010. The reforms limit presidential power, reestablish local governments, and guarantee Kenyans a bill of rights. All of these are steps in the right direction in limiting the influence tribalism has on the government, or in the very least guaranteeing more equal representation (Gettleman). Progress is being made in the Kibera slums of Nairobi as well with CFK launching a youth soccer league which aims to stop the next generation of Kenyans from drawing tribal lines in their lives. All of the teams in CFK’s league are multi-ethnic, an attempt at socializing children with members of other tribes. Through this the cycle of bigotry, hatred, and violence that makes tribalism continue is limited in the next generation (Barcott).
Tribalism is a terrible force it leads to so much destruction and disunity among different cultures. The lines drawn in society by tribalism create constant tensions which often erupt into violent conflicts. If governments were organized in a way in which tribes were represented equally it would eliminate unnecessary bloodshed and create national unity which in turn would lead to less tribal affiliation. Kenya is finally taking steps in the right direction by trying to limit the influence of tribes in politics after the atrocity that followed the 2007 election. With new reforms Kenya is looking towards a brighter more democratic future.
References
Barcott, Rye. It Happened on the Way to War: a Marine's Path to Peace. New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2011. Print.
"CARVING UP AFRICA...125 Years of the Berlin Conference." New African 492 (2010): 10-13. Academic Search Complete. Web. 18 Sept. 2011.
Gettleman, Jeffrey. "Kenyans Approve New Constitution." New York Times 6 Aug. 2010: A7. Print.
Kavulla, Travis. "A good plan in Africa: facing the realities of tribalism." National Review 20 Apr. 2009: 25. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 11 Sep. 2011.
Kimundi, Elizabeth. "POST-ELECTION CRISIS IN KENYA AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT'S DEVELOPMENT AS A LEGITIMATE INSTITUTION." Eyes on the ICC 7.1 (2010): 85-114. Academic Search Complete. Web. 11 Sept. 2011.
"Kenya." CIA World Fact Book. CIA. Web. 18 Sept. 2011.
"Tribalism." Merriam-Webster. Web. 18 Sept. 2011.
No comments:
Post a Comment